Expert System Industry In China

The synthetic intelligence market in the People’s Republic of China is a quickly establishing multi-billion dollar industry. The roots of China’s AI development started in the late 1970s following Deng Xiaoping’s financial reforms highlighting science and technology as the country’s primary efficient force.

The initial stages of China’s AI advancement were slow and experienced considerable obstacles due to absence of resources and skill. At the starting China was behind many Western countries in terms of AI development. A bulk of the research was led by scientists who had received greater education abroad. [1]

Since 2006, the government of individuals’s Republic of China has progressively developed a nationwide program for expert system advancement and became among the leading nations in synthetic intelligence research study and development. [2] In 2016, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) released its thirteenth five-year plan in which it intended to end up being an international AI leader by 2030. [3]

The State Council has a list of “nationwide AI teams” consisting of fifteen China-based business, including Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, and iFlytek. [citation required] Each business ought to lead the development of a designated specialized AI sector in China, such as facial acknowledgment, software/hardware, and speech acknowledgment. China’s rapid AI development has actually substantially impacted Chinese society in lots of areas, consisting of the socio-economic, military, and political spheres. Agriculture, transport, lodging and food services, and manufacturing are the top markets that would be the most impacted by further AI release.

The private sector, university laboratories, and the military are working collaboratively in many aspects as there are few current existing limits. [4] In 2021, China published the Data Security Law of the People’s Republic of China, its first national law dealing with AI-related ethical concerns. In October 2022, the United States federal government revealed a series of export controls and trade restrictions planned to restrict China’s access to sophisticated computer system chips for AI applications. [5] [6]

Concerns have been raised about the results of the Chinese government’s censorship regime on the development of generative artificial intelligence and talent acquisition with state of the nation’s demographics. [7] [8]

History

The research and development of expert system in China began in the 1980s, with the announcement by Deng Xiaoping of the importance of science and innovation for China’s financial development. [3]

Late 1970s to early 2010s

Expert system research study and development did not start till the late 1970s after Deng Xiaoping’s economic reforms. [3] While there was an absence of AI-related research study between the 1950s and 1960s, some scholars think this is due to the impact of cybernetics from the Soviet Union in spite of the Sino-Soviet split throughout the late 1950s and early 1960s. [9] In the 1980s, a group of Chinese researchers released AI research study led by Qian Xuesen and Wu Wenjun. [9] However, during the time, China’s society still had a typically conservative view towards AI. [9] Early AI development in China was tough so China’s federal government approached these obstacles by sending Chinese scholars overseas to study AI and more providing government funds for research projects. The Chinese Association for Artificial Intelligence (CAAI) was founded in September 1981 and was licensed by the Ministry of Civil Affairs. [10] The very first chairman of the executive committee was Qin Yuanxun, who got a PhD in approach from Harvard University. [citation needed] In 1987, China’s first research study publication on artificial intelligence was published by Tsinghua University. Beginning in 1993, clever automation and intelligence have become part of China’s nationwide innovation strategy. [9]

Since the 2000s, the Chinese federal government has actually further expanded its research study and advancement funds for AI and the variety of government-sponsored research projects has considerably increased. [3] In 2006, China revealed a policy top priority for the development of artificial intelligence, which was consisted of in the National Medium and Long Term Prepare For the Development of Science and Technology (2006-2020), launched by the State Council. [2] In the exact same year, expert system was also discussed in the strategy. [11]

In 2011, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI) established a branch in Beijing, China. [12] At same year, the Wu Wenjun Artificial Intelligence Science and Technology Award was established in honor of Chinese mathematician Wu Wenjun, and it became the highest award for Chinese accomplishments in the field of expert system. The very first award event was hung on May 14, 2012. [13] In 2013, the International Joint Conferences on Expert System (IJCAI) was held in Beijing, marking the very first time the conference was kept in China. This occasion accompanied the Chinese federal government’s announcement of the “Chinese Intelligence Year,” a considerable milestone in China’s development of synthetic intelligence. [12]

Late 2010s to early 2020s

The State Council of China issued “A Next Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan” (State Council Document [2017] No. 35) on 20 July 2017. In the document, the CCP Central Committee and the State Council prompted governing bodies in China to promote the development of synthetic intelligence. Specifically, the strategy explained AI as a strategic technology that has actually become a “focus of international competition”. [14]:2 The file advised significant investment in a number of tactical areas related to AI and called for close cooperation in between the state and personal sectors. On the occasion of CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping’s speech at the first plenary conference of the Central Military-Civil Fusion Development Committee (CMCFDC), scholars from the National Defense University composed in the PLA Daily that the “transferability of social resources” in between financial and military ends is a necessary component to being a great power. [15] During the Two Sessions 2017,”synthetic intelligence plus” was proposed to be elevated to a tactical level. [16] The exact same year saw the emergence of multiple application-level uses in the medical field according to reports. [17] Furthermore, the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) established their AI processor chip research study laboratory in Nanjing, and presented their first AI specialization chip, Cambrian. [citation required]

In 2018, Xinhua News Agency, in collaboration with Tencent’s subsidiary Sogou, released its first synthetic intelligence-generated news anchor. [18] [19] [20]

In 2018, the State Council allocated $2.1 billion for an AI commercial park in Mentougou district. [21] In order to attain this the State Council mentioned the need for massive skill acquisition, theoretical and useful developments, along with public and private financial investments. [14] Some of the stated motivations that the State Council gave for pursuing its AI technique include the potential of expert system for industrial transformation, better social governance and maintaining social stability. [14] Since the end of 2020, Shanghai’s Pudong District had 600 AI companies across foundational, technical, and application layers, with related markets valued at around 91 billion yuan. [22]

In 2019, the application of expert system broadened to different fields such as quantum physics, geography, and medical research study. With the development of big language designs (LLMs), at the beginning of 2020, Chinese scientists started developing their own LLMs. One such example is the multimodal large model called ‘Zidongtaichu.’ [23]

The Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence introduced China’s very first large scale pre-trained language model in 2022. [24] [25]:283

In November 2022, the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC), Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, and the Ministry of Public Security collectively released the guidelines worrying deepfakes, which became reliable in January 2023. [26]

In July 2023, Huawei launched its variation 3.0 of its Pangu LLM. [27]

In July 2023, China released its Interim Measures for the Administration of Generative Artificial Intelligence Services. [28]:96 A draft proposition on standard generative AI services safety requirements, consisting of specifications for information collection and model training was provided in October 2023. [28]:96

Also in October 2023, the Chinese federal government introduced its Global AI Governance Initiative, which frames its AI policy as part of a Neighborhood of Common Destiny and aims to develop AI policy discussion with establishing countries. [29] [28]:93 The Initiative has revealed concern over AI security risks, including abuse of information or making use of AI by terrorists. [28]:93

In 2024, Spamouflage, an online disinformation and propaganda project of the Ministry of Public Security, started utilizing news anchors created with generative synthetic intelligence to provide fake news clips. [18]

In March 2024, Premier Li Qiang introduced the AI+ Initiative, which means to integrate AI into China’s real economy. [28]:95

In May 2024, the Cyberspace Administration of China revealed that it rolled out a large language design trained on Xi Jinping Thought. [30]

According to the 2024 report from the International Data Corporation (IDC), Baidu AI Cloud holds China’s largest LLM market show 19.9 percent and US$ 49 million in earnings over the in 2015. This was followed by SenseTime, with 16 percent market share, and by Zhipu AI, as the third biggest. The 4th and fifth biggest were Baichuan and the Hong-Kong noted AI business 4Paradigm respectively. [31] Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax were praised by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers”. [32] In April 2024, 117 generative AI models had actually been approved by the Chinese federal government. [33]

Since 2024, numerous Chinese innovation firms such as Zhipu AI and Bytedance have introduced AI video-generation tools to rival OpenAI’s Sora. [34]

Chronology of significant AI-related policies

Ministry of Science and Technology; Ministry of Industry and Information Technology; the Central Leading Group for Cyberspace Affairs

National Development and Reform Commission; Ministry of Science and Technology Ministry of Industry and Infotech

Government goals

According to a February 2019 publication by the Center for a New American Security, CCP basic secretary Xi Jinping – thinks that being at the forefront of AI innovation will be crucial to the future of worldwide military and economic power competition. [35] By 2025, the State Council goes for China to make basic contributions to standard AI theory and to strengthen its place as a global leader in AI research. Further, the State Council goes for AI to end up being “the main driving force for China’s industrial upgrading and economic transformation” by this time. [14] By 2030, the State Council intends to have China be the global leader in the advancement of expert system theory and innovation. The State Council claims that China will have developed a “fully grown new-generation AI theory and technology system.” [14]

According to academics Karen M. Sutter and Zachary Arnold, the Chinese federal government “seeks to blend state preparation and control while some operational versatility for firms. In this context, China’s AI companies are hybrid players. The state guides their activity, funds, and guards them from foreign competition through domestic market defenses, creating asymmetric benefits as they expand offshore.” [36]

The CCP’s fourteenth five-year strategy reaffirmed AI as a leading research study top priority and ranks AI initially amongst “frontier markets” that the Chinese government intends to focus on through 2035. [3] The AI market is a tactical sector often supported by China’s federal government guidance funds. [37]:167

Research and development

Chinese public AI financing mainly focused on sophisticated and applied research study. [38] The government financing likewise supported several AI R&D in the economic sector through equity capital that are backed by the state. [38] Much analytic agency research showed that, while China is massively purchasing all aspects of AI development, facial acknowledgment, biotechnology, quantum computing, medical intelligence, and autonomous vehicles are AI sectors with the most attention and funding. [39]

According to national guidance on establishing China’s modern industrial advancement zones by the Ministry of Science and Technology, there are fourteen cities and one county chosen as an experimental development zone. [40] Zhejiang and Guangdong provinces have the most AI development in experimental areas. However, the focus of AI R&D varied depending on cities and local commercial development and environment. For example, Suzhou, a city with a longstanding strong manufacturing industry, heavily concentrates on automation and AI infrastructure while Wuhan focuses more on AI applications and the education sector. [40] In connection with universities, tech firms, and nationwide ministries, Shenzhen and Hangzhou each co-founded generative AI laboratories. [25]:282

In 2016 and 2017, Chinese teams won the leading reward at the Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge, a worldwide competition for computer system vision systems. [41] Much of these systems are now being incorporated into China’s domestic surveillance network. [42]

Interdisciplinary collaborations play a vital function in China’s AI R&D, including academic-corporate cooperation, public-private partnerships, and worldwide cooperations and projects with corporate-government partnerships are the most common. [1] China ranked in the top 3 worldwide following the United States and the European Union for the overall variety of peer-reviewed AI publications that are produced under a corporate-academic partnership in between 2015 and 2019. [43] Besides, according to an AI index report, China went beyond the U.S. in 2020 in the total number of international AI-related journal citations. [43] In regards to AI-related R&D, China-based peer-reviewed AI documents are mainly sponsored by the federal government. In May 2021, China’s Beijing Academy of Expert system released the world’s largest pre-trained language model (WuDao). [44]

As of 2023, 47% of the world’s top AI researchers had actually completed their undergraduate research studies in China. [28]:101

According to academic Angela Huyue Zhang, publishing in 2024, while the Chinese federal government has actually been proactive in managing AI services and enforcing responsibilities on AI companies, the overall method to its regulation is loose and demonstrates a pro-growth policy favorable to China’s AI industry. [28]:96 In July 2024, the federal government opened its first algorithm registration center in Beijing. [45]

Population

China’s big population produces a massive amount of accessible information for companies and scientists, which uses an essential advantage in the race of huge data. Since 2024 [upgrade], China has the world’s largest variety of internet users, creating huge quantities of information for artificial intelligence and AI applications. [46]:18

Facial recognition

Facial acknowledgment is among the most extensively employed AI applications in China. Collecting these big amounts of data from its homeowners assists further train and broaden AI capabilities. China’s market is not only favorable and important for corporations to additional AI R&D however also provides incredible economic possible drawing in both international and domestic firms to sign up with the AI market. The extreme development of the info and communication technology (ICT) market and AI chipsets in the last few years are two examples of this. [47] China has actually become the world’s largest exporter of facial recognition innovation, according to a January 2023 Wired report. [48]

Censorship and material controls

In April 2023, [49] the Cyberspace Administration of China (CAC) issued draft procedures specifying that tech companies will be obliged to guarantee AI-generated material maintains the ideology of the CCP consisting of Core Socialist Values, prevents discrimination, appreciates intellectual home rights, and safeguards user data. [50] [25]:278 Under these draft measures, business bear legal obligation for training information and content produced through their platforms. [25]:278 In October 2023, the Chinese federal government mandated that generative artificial intelligence-produced material might not “prompt subversion of state power or the toppling of the socialist system.” [51] Before releasing a large language design to the public, companies should seek approval from the CAC to certify that the design refuses to address particular questions connecting to political ideology and criticism of the CCP. [8] [52] Questions related to politically sensitive topics such as the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre or contrasts in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh need to be decreased. [52]

In 2023, in-country access was obstructed to Hugging Face, a company that keeps libraries including training data sets commonly used for large language models. [8] A subsidiary of individuals’s Daily, the main paper of the Central Committee of the Chinese Communist Party, offers local companies with training information that CCP leaders think about acceptable. [8] In 2024, the People’s Daily launched a LLM-based tool called Easy Write. [53]

Microsoft has warned that the Chinese government uses generative artificial intelligence to interfere in foreign elections by spreading disinformation and provoking discussions on dissentious political problems. [54] [55] [56]

The Chinese expert system model DeepSeek has been reported to decline to respond to questions connecting to features of the 1989 Tiananmen Square demonstrations and massacre, persecution of Uyghurs, comparisons in between Xi Jinping and Winnie the Pooh or human rights in China. [57] [58] [59]

Impact

Economic impact

Most companies [who?] hold optimistic views about AI’s economic influence on China’s long-lasting economic growth. In the past, conventional industries in China have actually fought with the boost in labor costs due to the growing aging population in China and the low birth rate. With the deployment of AI, functional costs are expected to reduce while an increase in performance produces profits development. [60] Some highlight the importance of a clear policy and governmental support in order to get rid of adoption barriers consisting of expenses and lack of correctly trained technical talents and AI awareness. [61] However, there are issues about China’s deepening earnings inequality and the ever-expanding imbalanced labor market in China. Low- and medium-income workers might be the most negatively affected by China’s AI advancement since of rising needs for workers with advanced skills. [61] Furthermore, China’s financial growth may be disproportionately divided as a bulk of AI-related commercial advancement is focused in seaside regions instead of inland. [61]

An influential choice by the Beijing Internet Court has ruled that AI-generated material is entitled to copyright defense. [28]:98

Military impact

China seeks to develop a “first-rate” military by “intelligentization” with a specific concentrate on using unmanned weapons and synthetic intelligence. [62] [63] It is researching different types of air, land, sea, and undersea self-governing vehicles. In the spring of 2017, a civilian Chinese university with ties to the military showed an AI-enabled swarm of 1,000 uninhabited aerial vehicles at an airshow. A media report launched later on showed a computer simulation of a similar swarm formation finding and damaging a missile launcher. [4]:23 Open-source publications indicated that China is also developing a suite of AI tools for cyber operations. [64] [4]:27 Chinese development of military AI is largely influenced by China’s observation of U.S. prepare for defense development and worries of a widening “generational gap” in comparison to the U.S. armed force. Similar to U.S. military principles, China aims to use AI for making use of large troves of intelligence, producing a common operating image, and accelerating battlefield decision-making. [64] [4]:12 -14 The Chinese Multi-Domain Precision Warfare (MDPW) is considered China’s action to the U.S. Joint All-Domain Command and Control (JADC2) method, which seeks to incorporate sensing units and weapons with AI and an energetic network. [65] [66]

Twelve categories of military applications of AI have been determined: UAVs, USVs, UUVs, UGVs, smart munitions, intelligent satellites, ISR (Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance) software, automated cyber defense software application, automated cyberattack software, choice support, software, automated rocket launch software, and cognitive electronic warfare software. [67]

China’s management of its AI ecosystem contrasts with that of the United States. [4]:6 In basic, couple of boundaries exist between Chinese commercial companies, university lab, the military, and the main federal government. As a result, the Chinese federal government has a direct ways of guiding AI advancement priorities and accessing technology that was ostensibly established for civilian purposes. To even more reinforce these ties the Chinese government produced a Military-Civil Fusion Development Commission which is meant to speed the transfer of AI innovation from business business and research study organizations to the military in January 2017. [2] [4]:19 In addition, the Chinese government is leveraging both lower barriers to information collection and lower costs of data labeling to create the big databases on which AI systems train. [68] According to one estimate, China is on track to have 20% of the world’s share of data by 2020, with the prospective to have more than 30% by 2030. [64] [4]:12

China’s centrally directed effort is buying the U.S. AI market, in companies working on militarily pertinent AI applications, possibly approving it lawful access to U.S. technology and intellectual property. [69] Chinese equity capital financial investment in U.S. AI business between 2010 and 2017 amounted to an estimated $1.3 billion. [70] [64] In September 2022, the U.S. Biden administration released an executive order to prevent foreign financial investments, “especially those from competitor or adversarial countries,” from investing in U.S. innovation companies, due to U.S. nationwide security issues. [71] [72] The order covers fields of U.S. technologies in which Chinese government has been investing, including “microelectronics, synthetic intelligence, biotechnology and biomanufacturing, quantum computing, [and] innovative clean energy.” [71] [72]

In 2024, scientists from the People’s Liberation Army Academy of Military Sciences were reported to have established a military tool using Llama, which Meta Platforms stated was unauthorized due to its model use restriction for military functions. [73] [74]

Academia

Although in 2004, Peking University presented the very first academic course on AI which led other Chinese universities to embrace AI as a discipline, particularly given that China deals with challenges in recruiting and keeping AI engineers and researchers. [21] Over half of the information researchers in the United States have actually been operating in the field for over 10 years, while roughly the same percentage of information scientists in China have less than 5 years of experience. As of 2017, fewer than 30 Chinese Universities produce AI-focused experts and research study items. [61]:8 Although China went beyond the United States in the variety of research study papers produced from 2011 to 2015, the quality of its published documents, as judged by peer citations, ranked 34th internationally. [75] China especially wish to resolve military applications therefore the Beijing Institute of Technology, one of China’s premier institutes for weapons research, just recently established the first children’s curriculum in military AI on the planet. [76]

In 2019, 34% of Chinese students studying in the AI field remained in China for work. [77] According to a database preserved by an American thinktank, the portion increased to 58% in 2022. [77]

Ethical issues

For the past years, there are discussions about AI security and ethical concerns in both personal and public sectors. In 2021, China’s Ministry of Science and Technology published the first national ethical standard, ‘the New Generation of Expert System Ethics Code’ on the topic of AI with particular emphasis on user protection, information personal privacy, and security. [78] This file acknowledges the power of AI and fast technology adaptation by the huge corporations for user engagements. The South China Morning Post reported that people shall remain completely decision-making power and rights to opt-in/-out. [78] Before this, the Beijing Academy of Artificial Intelligence released the Beijing AI concepts calling for vital requirements in long-lasting research study and preparation of AI ethical principles. [79]

Data security has been the most typical topic in AI ethical conversation worldwide, and numerous national federal governments have actually established legislation attending to information personal privacy and security. The Cybersecurity Law of the People’s Republic of China was enacted in 2017 aiming to attend to new difficulties raised by AI development. [80] [original research?] In 2021, China’s new Data Security Law (DSL) was passed by the PRC congress, establishing a regulative framework classifying all type of information collection and storage in China. [81] This implies all tech business in China are needed to categorize their information into categories noted in Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) and follow particular standards on how to govern and manage information transfers to other celebrations. [81]

Judicial system

In 2019, the city of Hangzhou developed a pilot program synthetic intelligence-based Internet Court to adjudicate disagreements associated with ecommerce and internet-related copyright claims. [82]:124 Parties appear before the court through videoconference and AI evaluates the proof presented and uses appropriate legal standards. [82]:124

Because some questionable cases that drew public criticism for their low penalties have actually been withdrawn from China Judgments Online, there are concerns about whether AI based upon fragmented judicial data can reach unbiased choices. [83] Zhang Linghan, professor of law at the China University of Political Science and Law, composes that AI-technology business may wear down judicial power. [84] Some scholars argued that “increasing party leadership, political oversight, and reducing the discretionary area of judges are deliberate objectives of SCR [clever court reform]” [85]

Leading business

Leading AI-centric companies and start-ups consist of Baidu, Tencent, Alibaba, SenseTime, 4Paradigm and Yitu Technology. [86] Chinese AI companies iFlytek, SenseTime, Cloudwalk and DJI have received attention for facial recognition, sound acknowledgment and drone technologies. [87]

China’s federal government takes a market-oriented technique to AI, and has sought to encourage personal tech companies in developing AI. [25]:281 In 2018, it designated Baidu, Alibaba, iFlytek, Tencent, and SenseTime as “AI champs”. [25]:281

In 2023, Tencent debuted its big language model Hunyuan for business use on Tencent Cloud. [88]

New leading AI start-ups consist of Baichuan, Zhipu AI, Moonshot AI and MiniMax which were praised by investors as China’s brand-new “AI Tigers” in 2024. [32] 01. AI has likewise been touted as a leading start-up. [89]

Assessment

Academic Jinghan Zeng argued the Chinese government’s commitment to global AI management and technological competition was driven by its previous underperformance in innovation which was seen by the CCP as a part of the century of embarrassment. [90] According to Zeng, there are historically embedded causes of China’s stress and anxiety towards securing a global technological dominance – China missed both commercial transformations, the one starting in Britain in the mid-18th century, and the one that originated in America in the late-19th century. [90] Therefore, China’s government desires to benefit from the technological transformation in today’s world led by digital technology consisting of AI to resume China’s “rightful” place and to pursue the nationwide renewal proposed by Xi Jinping. [90]

An article published by the Center for a New American Security concluded that “Chinese federal government authorities demonstrated incredibly eager understanding of the issues surrounding AI and global security. This consists of understanding of the U.S. AI policy discussions,” and suggested that “the U.S. policymaking community to similarly prioritize cultivating proficiency and understanding of AI developments in China” and “funding, focus, and a determination amongst U.S. policymakers to drive massive necessary modification.” [35] An article in the MIT Technology Review similarly concluded: “China may have unparalleled resources and huge untapped capacity, however the West has world-leading competence and a strong research culture. Instead of stress about China’s progress, it would be smart for Western nations to focus on their existing strengths, investing greatly in research and education. ” [91]

The Chinese government’s censorship program has actually stunted the advancement of generative expert system [7] [8]

In a 2021 text, the Research Centre for a Holistic Approach to National Security at the China Institutes of Contemporary International Relations composed that the development of AI produces obstacles for holistic nationwide security, consisting of the dangers that AI will increase social stress or have destabilizing results on international relations. [28]:49

Writing from a Chinese Marxist view, academics consisting of Gao Qiqi and Pan Enrong contend that capitalist application of AI will cause greater oppression of workers and more major social issues. [28]:90 Gao points out how the development of AI has actually increased the power of platform companies like Meta, Twitter, and Alphabet, leading to greater capital build-up and political power in fewer financial stars. [28]:90 According to Gao, the state ought to be the main accountable actor in the area of generative AI (creating brand-new material like music or video). [28]:92 Gao composes that military usage of AI dangers escalating military competitors between nations and that the effect of AI in military matters will not be limited to one country but will have spillover results. [28]:91

Dialogues between Chinese and Western AI specialists about the existential risk from synthetic intelligence have actually occurred. [92]

Public polling

The Chinese public is normally positive concerning AI. [25]:283 [28]:101 A 2021 research study conducted throughout 28 nations found that 78% of the Chinese public thinks the benefits of AI exceed the dangers, the highest of any country in the study. [25]:283 In 2024, a survey of elite Chinese university students found that 80% concurred or highly agreed that AI will do more great than damage for society, and 31% believed it ought to be managed by the federal government. [93]

Human rights

The widely utilized AI facial acknowledgment has actually raised issues. [94] According to The New York City Times, implementation of AI facial acknowledgment innovation in the Xinjiang region to spot Uyghurs is “the first recognized example of a federal government deliberately utilizing expert system for racial profiling,” [95] which is stated to be “one of the most striking examples of digital authoritarianism.” [96] Researchers have found that in China, areas experiencing higher rates of unrest are related to increased state acquisition of AI facial recognition technology, particularly by regional community authorities departments. [97] [98]

Expert system.
Expert system arms race
China Brain Project
Fifth generation computer
List of synthetic intelligence business
Regulation of expert system

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Further reading

Hannas, William C.; Chang, Huey-Meei, eds. (29 July 2022). Chinese Power and Artificial Intelligence: Perspectives and Challenges (1st ed.). London: Routledge.